Collective Imagination
Harari argues that humans’ ability to create and believe in shared myths is what sets Homo sapiens apart from other species and enables large-scale cooperation. These imagined orders encompass a wide range of constructs, from religious beliefs to economic systems, political ideologies, and social norms. Harari explains that for the majority of human history, Homo sapiens existed in nomadic groups where cooperation was limited to close kin and small communities. The Cognitive Revolution enabled humans to develop complex language systems and abstract thinking. This allowed humans to share ideas that did not have direct material or physical manifestations—things like gods, nations, human rights, or money.
These shared beliefs created a form of social glue, enabling large groups to coordinate and collaborate without personal connections. Examples like religion illustrate this point clearly. Many large-scale religions provided shared narratives that allowed people to live together peacefully, despite coming from diverse cultures or geographic locations. Similarly, modern concepts such as capitalism, nationalism, and democracy are built on shared trust in the system. Money is only valuable because people collectively agree that it is. Without this collective imagination, Harari argues that large-scale human cooperation and the development of complex societies would not have been possible.
The Agricultural Revolution
Contrary to the common narrative that the transition from foraging to farming was a leap forward, Harari argues that it was a trap. Agriculture may have allowed humans to settle down and create food surpluses, but it also led to numerous unintended consequences, such as social inequality, poor health, and environmental degradation. Before agriculture, humans lived as hunter-gatherers moving from place to place and relying on diverse diets of wild plants and animals. Harari claims that the Agricultural Revolution was driven by incremental decisions to cultivate certain plants and animals. Over time, humans became increasingly dependent on these crops, which led to a sedentary lifestyle. This shift enabled the rise of large settlements and civilizations, but it also required more labor-intensive work.
Harari refers to agriculture as "history’s biggest fraud" because it promised abundance but delivered new forms of hardship. For example, early farmers had poorer nutrition than foragers did, as their diets were often limited to a few staple crops. Additionally, agricultural societies saw the emergence of social hierarchies since surpluses allowed some individuals to accumulate wealth and power. Farming also fundamentally changed the relationship between humans and the environment. While foragers lived in relative harmony with nature, agricultural societies began to manipulate and exploit ecosystems to maximize production. Forests were cleared, rivers diverted, and animals domesticated. This exploitation led to long-term environmental damage, including soil erosion and the extinction of various species.
Capitalism and Consumerism
Harari traces capitalism’s origins to the Scientific Revolution and the discovery of the New World. He argues that it has shaped our values, societies, and behaviors more than any other system in recent history. Capitalism is a cultural force that fuels both human ambition and exploitation. The discovery of new lands and peoples fueled global trade networks and the development of financial systems, such as joint-stock companies and banks. The marriage of science, imperialism, and capitalism created unprecedented economic growth and technological innovation. Capitalism is unique in its belief in the future. Harari explains that people lived in what he calls "zero-sum" economies—if one person had more wealth, another had less. In contrast, capitalism is based on the idea that wealth can be created and expanded indefinitely. This belief in growth fuels modern consumerism, technological development, and the global economy. Investors, businesses, and consumers are all driven by the promise of future returns.
However, Harari also criticizes capitalism’s darker side. While it has undeniably lifted millions out of poverty and spurred technological advances, it has also led to exploitation, inequality, and environmental destruction. The pursuit of profit disregards the human and ecological costs. Modern consumerism convinces people that happiness and meaning are tied to material goods.
