Part 1: On the Prejudices of Philosophers
In this part, Nietzsche puts forward that our truths are often based not on objectivity, but on prejudice. He also claims that we put an unfair bias towards truth over falsehood, when falsehood can be just as useful as truth. He then elaborates with examples such as the Stoics (forcing their truth onto nature) and Kantian thinking (a priori, which he argues does not exist, yet is necessary), claiming he uses nothing more than circular reasoning. Finally, he criticizes Descartes' famous "I think therefore I am", claiming that it is not the "I" that is thinking, rather the thought itself.
Part 2: The Free Spirit
He first claims that our truths are simplified creating our knowledge, that the truths put forward by philosophers are simply their own prejudices when they should be questioning themselves. He claims "free spirits" thrive in isolation, as their knowledge will only be misinterpreted by others, still he states also that such people must interact with the general populous to gather more knowledge. He argues against the way our society judges actions based on their motives, he claims we must look into the much more complex drives which set these actions about unconsciously. Nietzsche makes the important assumption that nothing is real other than our drives, passions and desires, all other things are simply those working in conjunction. Nietzsche also believes that all things in the world are based on, and come from our fundamental will to power. Lastly Nietzsche makes the ironic statement of how "free spirits" often need masks to hide their true nature and beliefs (as to not be misunderstood). However such spirits must not let themselves be attached to anything and be constantly testing themselves, he calls the new generation of philosophers "attempters" (versucher) who reject dogmatism etc.
Part 3: What is Religious
Firstly Nietzsche thoroughly dissects Christianity, claiming all the demands and self-denial it creates is what push people to dreams of Saintism. Nietzsche then goes on to claim that modern society is inherently atheist, with the past ideas of God being dead (and philosophers have killed him). He claims that Christianity forces man to reject work in favour of a leisure class lifestyle (something that is detrimental). He then goes on to explain the ladder of sacrifice which religion creates (first demanding sacrifice of one's kin, then oneself, then our will, freedom and strength) and of which we have reached a new rung, it now demands we paradoxically sacrifice God. He then finally concludes with how religion can mean different things to different people (or classes), but how Christianity values reversing our morals , devaluing our "noble instincts".
Part 4: Epigrams and Interludes
There is no coherent structure or theme to all the short epigrams presented, they touch on a manner of subjects which Nietzsche thought were not fleshed out enough (or important enough) to discuss elsewhere. Some more general themes in separate epigrams include: morality being born of inner struggle, women and their differences from men (often pointing them out to being emotional and "snakelike", slightly misogynistically), Christianity, sexuality (many of references to homosexuality), German national identity, teaching of the new generation of men and philosophers, etc.
Part 5: Natural History of Morals
He starts by claiming that morality is not objective, and no philosopher has ever succeeded in defining it beyond what applies to their time, village, country, church etc. Furthermore, he states that we see much less than we believe, taking in only a larger generalisation of things and using prior-knowledge and bias to fill in the rest (comparing this to seeing a tree). He further claims people's perception of what is worth perusing, and what it takes to finally possess what they were perusing, using education and charity as examples. He goes on to show his disgust for moralists, whom often generalize to a collective where it should be left to the individual. Concludingly, he asserts that morals are based primarily on fear, with them creating a safe space where aggressive or lively individuals will be seen as a threat, due to morality preferring the tame and safe over the lively and aggressive. This morality believes itself to be the one true morality (similar to God in Christianity).
Part 6: We Scholars
Nietzsche first tries to separate philosophers and scholars within the science world, claiming philosophers need to rise above the rest of knowledge. He also discusses 2 different kinds of scepticism, one which he associates with mediocrity (being plagued by doubts, these sceptics pursue science and objectivity), cursing them to a life of inhibited action. Juxtaposed to skepticism he associates with a "Frederick the Great", this type being strong-willed, intrepid, never resting content with easy answers but always questioning, seeking, and discovering. Philosophers, he claims, are legislators and creators. Compared to scholars and "philosophical labourers" who dwell on the past, philosophers wish to look to the future. He claims they are almost out of place in the present (speaking for the tomorrow rather than the today), using examples such as Socrates. He ends this part with the assertion that it takes a certain mold of man to become a philosopher, someone who finds thinking light and easy, and not difficult. He concludes most of us, simply do not have the strength to be philosophers, so those of us who do, must be nurtured and cultivated.
Part 7: Our Virtues
He starts this part with the assertion that there is a hierarchy of people and moralities, with the lower class being naturally envious of the higher one. He goes on to suggest that moral laws are not universal, using the example of the self-effacement of a leader (which would be an inherently immoral waste). Nietzsche believes pity to be a way of covering up self-contempt, that pleasure and pain are only the surface of our deeper drives, that suffering should be celebrated, as it shows we are evolving into something greater. He states "the only pity he feel is for the creator in us being stifled by modern society". He also suggests that we have not shed our animalistic ways for cruelty, as we search for knowledge which on goes to hurt us (i.e. evolution proving were are not a higher life form compared to apes etc.). He then makes the huge claim that we all (even Nietzsche himself) have a set of fundamental convictions which make up the core of our being. He then proceeds to rant ludicrously about his own unshakeable convictions surrounding women (how the then feminist movement only serves to make them men etc.).
Part 8: Peoples and Fatherlands
At the start of this part Nietzsche claims that the current state of Europe will drive nationalities to become less distinct and lead to a mixed race, however, he believes this is for the good. He asserts the Germans are a result of many different bloods, there is not pure German so to speak, this leads the German spirit to be complex and mysterious, without firm definition. He then attacks his own language, claiming it lacks a sense of musicality and natural beauty which is crucial. Furthermore he makes the assertion that there are 2 types of races masculine and feminine (defined in detail in the text), claiming the Greeks and French to be examples of feminine races, and the Romans, German and especially Jews to be masculine ones. He then speaks highly of the Jews, claiming their creativity is some of the greatest in Europe, and unlike many Germans of his time, did not believe the Jews desired to take over Europe, rather they wanted to assimilate. He then claims the English to be unphilosophical, shallow and rely on insipid Christian moralising. He claims they create not free spirits, but mediocre men at best. He claims the English almost infected the French with insipid democratic ideals (such as the one of Rousseau), that the true French spirit was alive in the 16th and 17th centuries. He ends by saying that the most exemplary figures in European history are ones which have risen above their respective nationality (citing among others: Napoleon, Goethe, Stendhal and Schopenhauer).
Part 9: What is Noble
Nietzsche starts by asserting an aristocratic cast is fundamental, society exists to create the few exceptional individuals that are its crowning glory. He then goes on to explain what he believes master and slave morality to be. He states that due to our democratic majority rule society, the free spirits will never truly be free, they will forever be misunderstood and marginalised. He also fondly speaks of people who wish to rise above the majority, who believe that all company is a delay, he suggests that perhaps it is not genius, but the opportunity to take full advantage of genius, that is so rare. Finally, Nietzsche concludes that his thoughts are too complex and cannot find a foothold in the simplicity and forwardness of our language, he claims that his thoughts, however free, will always be anchored down by language. He states "Language can only capture thoughts and ideas that are relatively rigid and fixed: the most beautiful, free- moving thoughts always escape expression".
